Progesterone

Absorption

Oral micronized capsules
Following oral administration of progesterone in the micronized soft-gelatin capsule formulation, peak serum concentration was achieved in the first 3 hours. The absolute bioavailability of micronized progesterone is unknown at this time. In postmenopausal women, serum progesterone concentration increased in a dose-proportional and linear fashion after multiple doses of progesterone capsules, ranging from 100 mg/day to 300 mg/day .
IM administration
After intramuscular (IM) administration of 10 mg of progesterone in oil, the maximum plasma concentrations were achieved in about 8 hours post-injection and plasma concentrations stayed above baseline for approximately 24 hours post-injection. Injections of 10, 25, and 50 mg lead to geometric mean values for maximum plasma concentration (CMAX) of 7, 28, and 50 ng/mL, respectively . Progesterone administered by the intramuscular (IM) route avoids significant first-pass hepatic metabolism. As a result, endometrial tissue concentrations of progesterone achieved with IM administration are higher when compared with oral administration. Despite this, the highest concentrations of progesterone in endometrial tissue are reached with vaginal administration .
Note on oral contraceptive tablet absorption
Serum progestin levels peak about 2 hours after oral administration of progesterone-only contraceptive tablets, followed by rapid distribution and elimination. By 24 hours after drug administration, serum levels remain near the baseline, making efficacy dependent upon strict adherence to the dosing schedule. Large variations in serum progesterone levels occur among individuals. Progestin-only administration leads to lower steady-state serum progestin levels and a shorter elimination half-life than concurrent administration with estrogens .

Toxicity

Intraperitoneal LD50 (rat): 327 mg/kg .
Use in pregnancy
Only forms of progesterone that are indicated on product labeling for pregnancy should be used. Some forms of progesterone should not be used in pregnancy , . Refer to individual product monographs for information regarding use in pregnancy. Many studies have found no effects on fetal development associated with long-term use of contraceptive doses of oral progestins. Studies of infant growth and development that have been conducted have not demonstrated significant adverse effects, however, these studies are few in number. It is therefore advisable to rule out suspected pregnancy before starting any hormonal contraceptive .
Effects on fertility
Progesterone at high doses is an antifertility drug and high doses would be expected to impair fertility until cessation . The progesterone contraceptive should not be used during pregnancy.
Carcinogenicity
Progesterone has been shown to induce or promote the formation of ovarian, uterine, mammary, and genital tract tumors in animals. The clinical relevance of these findings is unknown . Certain epidemiological studies of patients using oral contraceptives have reported an increased relative risk of developing breast cancer, especially at a younger age and associated with a longer duration of use. These studies have mainly involved combined oral contraceptives, and therefore, it is unknown whether this risk is attributable to progestins, estrogens, or a combination of both. At this time, there is insufficient data to determine whether the use of progestin-only contraceptives increases the risk in a similar way to combined contraceptives. A meta-analysis of 54 studies showed a small increase in the frequency of breast cancer diagnosis for women who were currently using combined oral contraceptives, or had used them within the past 10 years. There was no increase in the frequency of having breast cancer diagnosed ten or more years after cessation of hormone use. Women with breast cancer should not use oral contraceptives, as there is no sufficient data to fully establish or negate the risk of cancer with hormonal contraceptive use .
Use in breastfeeding
Progesterone has been detected in the milk of nursing mothers , . No adverse effects, in general, have been found on breastfeeding ability or on the health, growth, or development of the growing infant. Despite this, isolated post-marketing cases of decreased milk production have been reported .

Description

Progesterone, along with pregnenolone, is the biosynthetic precursor of all other steroid hormones. Progesterone is synthesized from cholesterol by the sequential action of desmolase in the mitochondria, which produces pregnenolone, followed by Δ^4,5-isomerase in the outer mitochondrial membrane and smooth endoplasmic reticulum of steroid-secreting cells. Progesterone activates the human progesterone receptor with an EC₅₀ value of 0.5 nM.

Chemical properties

White powder. Melting point 121°C. Stable in air. Insoluble in water. A female sex hormone. Low toxicity.

Occurrence

Colchicum luteum also yields this alkaloid.

The Uses of Progesterone

Progesterone is used as a contraceptive, for amenorrhea, for premenopausal syndrome, infertility, incomplete pregnancies, and anovulatory uterine bleeding.

The Uses of Progesterone

Steroid hormone produced by the corpus luteum. Induces maturation and secretory activity of the uterine endothelium; suppresses ovulation. Progesterone is implicated in the etiology of breast cancer.This compound is a contaminant of emerging concern (CECs).

What are the applications of Application

Progesterone is a C-21 steroid hormone involved in uterine endothelium activity

Indications

Gelatinized capsules
The gelatinized capsules are indicated for use in the prevention of endometrial hyperplasia in non-hysterectomized postmenopausal women who are receiving conjugated estrogens tablets. They are also indicated for use in secondary amenorrhea .
Vaginal gel
Progesterone gel (8%) is indicated as progesterone supplementation or replacement as part of an Assisted Reproductive Technology (“ART”) treatment for infertile women with progesterone deficiency. The lower concentration progesterone gel (4%) is used in the treatment of secondary amenorrhea, with the use of the 8% concentration if there is no therapeutic response to the 4% gel .
Vaginal insert
This form is indicated to support embryo implantation and early pregnancy by supplementation of corpus luteal function as part of an Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) treatment program for infertile women .
Injection (intramuscular)
This drug is indicated in amenorrhea and abnormal uterine bleeding due to hormonal imbalance in the absence of organic pathology, such as submucous fibroids or uterine cancer .
Tablets, contraceptive
The tablet form of progesterone in contraceptive formulations is indicated for the prevention of pregnancy .

Background

Progesterone is a hormone that occurs naturally in females, and is essential for endometrial receptivity, embryo implantation, and the successful establishment of pregnancy. A low progesterone concentration or an insufficient response to progesterone can cause infertility and pregnancy loss . Progesterone is used in various contraceptive preparations to prevent ovulation and fertilization , as well as in other formulations to promote and support pregnancy. Please see Medroxyprogesterone acetate, Megestrol acetate, Dydrogesterone and Hydroxyprogesterone entries for information on various other forms of progesterone.
Pharmaceutical progesterone is made from a plant source as a starting material and is chemically identical to progesterone of human ovarian origin . Progesterone is available in gelatinized capsule form, vaginal gel form, tablet form, vaginal insert form, and injection form, all used for various purposes .

Definition

ChEBI: Progesterone is a C21-steroid hormone in which a pregnane skeleton carries oxo substituents at positions 3 and 20 and is unsaturated at C(4)-C(5). As a hormone, it is involved in the female menstrual cycle, pregnancy and embryogenesis of humans and other species. It has a role as a contraceptive drug, a progestin, a progesterone receptor agonist, a human metabolite and a mouse metabolite. It is a 20-oxo steroid, a 3-oxo-Delta(4) steroid and a C21-steroid hormone. It derives from a hydride of a pregnane.

brand name

Crinone (Columbia); Prometrium (Unimed).

Biological Functions

Progesterone is a hormone, produced primarily by the corpus luteum of the ovary but also by the placenta, that prepares the inner lining of the uterus for implantation ofa fertilized egg cell. If implantation fails, the corpus luteum degenerates and progesterone production ceases accordingly. If implantation occurs,the corpus luteum continues to secrete progesterone, under the influence of luteinizing hormone and prolactin, for several months of pregnancy,by which time the placenta has taken over this function. Duringpregnancy, progesterone maintains the constitution of the uterus and prevents further release of eggs from the ovary. Small amounts of progesterone are produced by the testes.

General Description

Progesterone, pregn-4-en-3,20-dione, is so rapidly metabolized that it is not particularlyeffective orally, being only one twelfth as active as intramuscularly.An oral formulation of micronized progesterone(Prometrium) is available. Progesterone given intramuscularlycan be very irritating. A vaginal gel containing 4% or8% progesterone offers an alternative dosage form.Progesterone was originally obtained from animal ovariesbut is now prepared synthetically from plant sterol precursors.The discovery of 19-nortestosterones with progesteroneactivity made synthetically modified progestins of tremendoustherapeutic importance.
Progesterone (and all other steroid 4-ene-3-ones) is lightsensitive and should be protected from light.

Air & Water Reactions

Insoluble in water.

Reactivity Profile

Progesterone is sensitive to light .

Hazard

A carcinogen (OSHA).

Health Hazard

ACUTE/CHRONIC HAZARDS: Progesterone may be absorbed through the skin.

Fire Hazard

Flash point data for Progesterone are not available; however, Progesterone is probably combustible.

Biological Activity

Endogenous progesterone receptor (PR) agonist (EC 50 = 0.5 nM).

Biochem/physiol Actions

Induces maturation and secretory activity of the uterine endothelium; suppresses ovulation. Progesterone is implicated in the etiology of breast cancer.

Pharmacokinetics

Progesterone, depending on concentration and dosage form, and timing of exposure may have several pharmacodynamic effects. These actions, according, to various preparations, are listed below:
General effects
Progesterone is the main hormone of the corpus luteum and the placenta. It acts on the uterus by changing the proliferative phase to the secretory phase of the endometrium (inner mucous lining of the uterus). This hormone, stimulated by a hormone called luteinizing hormone (LH) is the main hormone during the secretory phase to prepare the corpus luteum and the endometrium for implantation of a fertilized ovum. As the luteal phase concludes, the progesterone hormone sends negative feedback to the anterior pituitary gland in the brain to decrease FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone) levels. This prevents ovulation and maturation of oocytes (immature egg cells). The endometrium then prepares for pregnancy by increasing its vascularity (blood vessels) and stimulating mucous secretion. This process occurs by progesterone stimulating the endometrium to decrease endometrial proliferation, leading to a decreased uterine lining thickness, developing more complex uterine glands, collecting energy in the form of glycogen, and providing more uterine blood vessel surface area suitable for supporting a growing embryo. As opposed to cervical mucous changes observed during the proliferative phase and ovulation, progesterone decreases and thickens the cervical mucus, rendering it less elastic. This change occurs because the fertilization time period has passed, and a specific consistency of mucous amenable to sperm entry is no longer required .
Gelatinized capsules
Progesterone capsules are an oral dosage form of micronized progesterone which, chemically identical to progesterone of ovarian origin. Progesterone capsules have all the properties of endogenous progesterone with induction of a secretory phase endometrium with gestagenic, antiestrogenic, slightly antiandrogenic and anti-aldosterone effects . Progesterone opposes the effects of estrogen on the uterus, and is beneficial in women with unopposed estrogen exposure, which carries an increased risk of malignancy .
Vaginal gel and vaginal insert
The gel preparation mimics the effects of naturally occurring progesterone. In the presence of adequate levels of estrogen, progesterone converts a proliferative endometrium into secretory endometrium. This means that the endometrium changes from a growing and thickening stage into a subsequent preparation stage for pregnancy, which involves further preparatory changes. Progesterone is necessary for the development of decidual tissue (specialized tissue amenable to supporting a possible pregnancy). Progesterone is required to increase endometrial receptivity for the implantation of a fertilized embryo. Once an embryo is implanted, progesterone helps to maintain the pregnancy .
Injection (intramuscular)
Intramuscularly injected progesterone increases serum progesterone and aids in the prevention of endometrial tissue overgrowth due to unopposed estrogen (which leads to abnormal uterine bleeding and sometimes uterine cancer) , . In the absence or deficiency of progesterone, the endometrium continually proliferates, eventually outgrowing its limited blood supply, shedding incompletely, and leading to abnormal and/or profuse bleeding as well as malignancy .
Tablets, contraceptive
Progesterone-only contraceptive tablets prevent conception by suppressing ovulation in about half of users, causing a thickening of cervical mucus to inhibit sperm movement, lowering the midcycle LH and FSH hormone peaks, slowing the movement of the ovum through the fallopian tubes, and causing secretory changes in the endometrium as described above .

Pharmacology

During the second half of the menstrual cycle, progesterone promotes glandular growth in the endometrium, hyperemia of the uterus, thickening of the endometrium in preparation for implantation of a fertilized egg, and reduces the excitability of the uterus during pregnancy, inhibiting its activity and relaxing smooth muscles , allowing the embryo to grow safely. Under the joint action of estrogen, progesterone promotes the development of breast lobules and glands, so that the breasts can fully develop and prepare for lactation. Progesterone closes the cervix, reduces and thickens the mucus, and makes it difficult for sperm to penetrate; in large doses, it inhibits the secretion of pituitary gonadotropin through a negative feedback effect on the hypothalamus, resulting in the inhibition of ovulation. After ovulation, on the basis of the action of progesterone hormone, the endometrium continues to thicken and hyperemia, the glands proliferate and branch, from the proliferative phase to the secretory phase, which is conducive to the implantation and embryonic development of pregnant eggs. Progesterone inhibits uterine contractions and reduces the sensitivity of the uterus to oxytocin, allowing the fetus to grow safely. Progesterone competes against aldosterone, thereby promoting Na and Cl excretion and diuresis. Progesterone can slightly increase body temperature in normal women, so the basal body temperature in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle is higher than that in the follicular phase.

Side Effects

Common side effects of oral Progesterone include: chest pain, chills, cold or flu-like symptoms; cough or hoarseness; fever, and problems with urination. Rare side effects include: clear or bloody discharge; dimpling of the breast skin, lumps in the breast or armpit; persistent crusting or flaking; redness or swelling of the breast; and sores on the breast skin that do not heal. Other side effects that may occur are: abdominal or stomach pain; constipation, difficulty breathing, dizziness, fast, strong, or irregular heartbeat or pulse; headache, measles, indigestion, itching, joint pain, stiffness, or swelling; rash.

Safety Profile

NTP 10th Report on Carcinogens. IARC Cancer Review: Animal Lirmted Evidence IMEMDT 21,491,79; Animal Sufficient Evidence IMEMDT 6,135,74. EPA Genetic Toxicology Program. Reported in EPA TSCA Inventory. SAFETY PROFILE: Confirmed carcinogen with experimental carcinogenic, neoplastigenic, tumorigenic, and teratogenic data. Poison by intravenous and intraperitoneal routes. Human teratogenic effects by ingestion and parenteral routes: developmental abnormalities of the urogenital system. Human male reproductive effects by intramuscular route: changes in spermatogenesis, the prostate, seminal vesicle, Cowper's gland and accessory glands, impotence, and breast development. Human female reproductive effects by ingestion, parenteral, and intravaginal routes: ferthty changes; menstrual cycle changes and disorders; uterus, cervix, and vagina changes. Experimental reproductive effects. Human mutation data reported. When heated to decomposition it emits acrid smoke and irritating fumes.

Synthesis

Progesterone, pregn-4-en-3,20-dione (28.3.1), is made by oxidizing pregnenolon with aluminum isopropylate in the presence of cyclohexanone as a proton acceptor (Oppenauer oxidation). Pregnenolon itself is made by subsequent oxidation and further cleavage of the side chain of stigmasterin, a sterin of plant origin that is isolated from soybeans.

Carcinogenicity

Progesterone is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.

Metabolism

Progesterone is mainly metabolized by the liver. After oral administration, the major plasma metabolites found are 20 a hydroxy-Δ4 a-prenolone and 5 a-dihydroprogesterone. Some progesterone metabolites are found excreted in the bile and these metabolites may be deconjugated and subsequently metabolized in the gut by reduction, dehydroxylation, and epimerization . The major plasma and urinary metabolites are comparable to those found during the physiological progesterone secretion of the corpus luteum .

storage

Store at RT

Purification Methods

The 
form crystallises from EtOH with m 127-131o. The -form crystallises from pet ether or aqueous pet ether/aqueous Et2O with m 119-120o or 121o. It also crystallises from Et2O, Me2CO/EtOAc, MeOH, aqueous Et2O, aqueous MeOH, wet pet ether, Et2O/pet ether, pet ether/*C6H6, Et2O/pentane and isopropyl ether. The is at 240nm with log 4.25 (EtOH). [Wintersteiner & Allen J Biol Chem 107 max 321 1934, Beilstein 7 III 3648, 7 IV 2395.]